This page provides you with the an overview of topics and knowledge you should be familiar with when entering the field of learning and instructional design.

Past Theorists: John Dewey, John Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Benjamin Bloom, Malcolm Knowles, Robert Gange

John Dewey
(1859-1952) believed that learning was active and schooling unnecessarily long and restrictive. His idea was that children came to school to do things and live in a community which gave them real, guided experiences which fostered their capacity to contribute to society. For example, Dewey believed that students should be involved in real-life tasks and challenges:

Math could be learned via learning proportions in cooking or figuring out how long it would take to get from one place to another by mule
History could be learned by experiencing how people lived, geography, what the climate was like, and how plants and animals grew, were important subjects.

Dewey had a gift for suggesting activities that captured the center of what his classes were studying. Dewey’s education philosophy helped forward the “progressive education” movement, and spawned the development of “experiential education” programs and experiments.

Jean Piaget
(1896-1980) was a Swiss developmental psychologist known for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called “genetic epistemology”.
Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that “only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual.”
Piaget created the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 and directed it until 1980. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is “the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing.” (wikipedia entry)

First Piaget: The Sociological Model of Development
Piaget first developed this stage in the 1920s. He investigated the hidden side of children’s minds. Piaget proposed that children moved from a position of egocentrism to sociocentrism. For this explanation he combined the use of psychological and clinical methods to create what he called a semiclinical interview. He began the interview by asking children standardized questions and depending on how they answered, he would ask them a series of nonstandard questions. Piaget was looking for what he called “spontaneous conviction” so he often asked questions the children neither expected nor anticipated. In his studies, he noticed there was a gradual progression from intuitive to scientific and socially acceptable responses. Piaget theorized children did this because of the social interaction and the challenge to younger children’s ideas by the ideas of those children who were more advanced.
This work was used by Elton Mayo as the basis for the famous Hawthorne Experiments.[6] For Piaget, it also led to an honorary doctorate from Harvard in 1936.[7]

Second Piaget: The Sensorimotor/Adaptive Model of Intellectual Development
In this stage, Piaget described intelligence as having two closely interrelated parts. The first part, which is from the first stage, was the content of children’s thinking. The second part was the process of intellectual activity. He believed this process of thinking could be regarded as an extension of the biological process of adaptation. Adaptation has two pieces: assimilation and accommodation. To test his theory, Piaget observed the habits in his own children. He argued infants were engaging in an act of assimilation when they sucked on everything in their reach. He claimed infants transform all objects into an object to be sucked. The children were assimilating the objects to conform to their own mental structures. Piaget then made the assumption whenever one transforms the world to meet individual needs or conceptions; one is, in a way, assimilating it. Piaget also observed his children not only assimilating objects to fit their needs, but also modifying some of their mental structures to meet the demands of the environment. This is the second division of adaption known as accommodation. To start out, the infants only engaged in primarily reflex actions such as sucking, but not long after, they would pick up actual objects and put them in their mouths. When they do this, they modify their reflex response to accommodate the external objects into reflex actions. Because the two are often in conflict, they provide the impetus for intellectual development. The constant need to balance the two, triggers intellectual growth.

Third Piaget: The Elaboration of the Logical Model of Intellectual Development
In the model Piaget developed in stage three, he argued the idea that intelligence develops in a series of stages that are related to age and are progressive because one stage must be accomplished before the next can occur. For each stage of development the child forms a view of reality for that age period. At the next stage, the child must keep up with earlier level of mental abilities to reconstruct concepts. Piaget concluded intellectual development as an upward expanding spiral in which children must constantly reconstruct the ideas formed at earlier levels with new, higher order concepts acquired at the next level.
It is primarily the Third Piaget that was incorporated into American psychology when Piaget’s ideas were “rediscovered” in the 1960s.[8]

Fourth Piaget: The Study of Figurative Thought
Piaget studied areas of intelligence like perception and memory that aren’t entirely logical. Logical concepts are described as being completely reversible because they can always get back to the starting point. The perceptual concepts Piaget studied could not be manipulated. To describe the figurative process, Piaget uses pictures as examples. Pictures can’t be separated because contours cannot be separated from the forms they outline. Memory is the same way. It is never completely reversible. During this last period of work, Piaget and his colleague Inhelder also published books on perception, memory, and other figurative processes such as learning during this last period.[9][10][11]

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky
(1896 – 1934) was a Soviet psychologist and the founder of cultural-historical psychology.

Thought and Language
Perhaps Vygotsky’s most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of language development and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky’s book Thought and Language, (alternative translation: Thinking and Speaking) establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner speech and oral language), and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different from normal (external) speech. Although Vygotsky believed inner speech developed from external speech via a gradual process of internalization, with younger children only really able to “think out loud,” he claimed that in its mature form inner speech would be unintelligible to anyone except the thinker, and would not resemble spoken language as we know it (in particular, being greatly compressed). Hence, thought itself develops socially.

Zone of Proximal Development
“Zone of proximal development” (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that a child can complete independently and those completed with the guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled children. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor. The ZPD captures the child’s cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can be accomplished only with the assistance of a more-skilled person. Scaffolding is a concept closely related to the idea of ZPD. Scaffolding is changing the level of support. Over the course of a teaching session, a more-skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the child’s current performance. Dialogue is an important tool of this process in the zone of proximal development. In a dialogue unsystematic, disorganized, and spontaneous concepts of a child are met with the more systematic, logical and rational concepts of the skilled helper.

Benjamin Bloom
(1913 –1999) was an educational psychologist who made contributions to the classification of educational objectives and to the theory of mastery-learning. He also directed a research team which conducted a major investigation into the development of exceptional talent whose results are relevant to the question of eminence, exceptional achievement, and greatness.

There are six levels in the taxonomy, moving through the lowest order processes to the highest:

Knowledge
Exhibit memory of previously-learned materials by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers

Knowledge of specifics – terminology, specific facts
Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics – conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology
Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field – principles and generalizations, theories and structures

Comprehension
Demonstrative understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating main ideas

Translation
Interpretation
Extrapolation

Application
Using new knowledge. Solve problems to new situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different way

Analysis
Examine and break information into parts by identifying motives or causes. Make inferences and find evidence to support generalizations

Analysis of elements
Analysis of relationships
Analysis of organizational principles

Synthesis
Compile information together in a different way by combining elements in a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions

Production of a unique communication
Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
Derivation of a set of abstract relations

Evaluation
Present and defend opinions by making judgments about information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria

Judgments in terms of internal evidence
Judgments in terms of external criteria

Malcolm Knowles
(1913–1997) was an American Adult Educator, famous for the adoption of the theory of Andragogy—initially a term coined by the German teacher Alexander Kapp. Knowles is credited with being a fundamental influence in the development of the Humanist Learning Theory and the use of learner constructed contracts or plans to guide learning experiences.

Andragogy
consists of learning strategies focused on adults. It is often interpreted as the process of engaging adult learners with the structure of learning experience. Originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833, andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by the American educator Malcolm Knowles.
Knowles asserted that andragogy (Greek: “man-leading”) should be distinguished from the more commonly used pedagogy (Greek: “child-leading”).
Knowles’ theory can be stated with six assumptions related to motivation of adult learning:[1][2]

Adults need to know the reason for learning something (Need to Know)
Experience (including error) provides the basis for learning activities (Foundation).
Adults need to be responsible for their decisions on education; involvement in the planning and evaluation of their instruction (Self-concept).
Adults are most interested in learning subjects having immediate relevance to their work and/or personal lives (Readiness).
Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Orientation).
Adults respond better to internal versus external motivators (Motivation).

The term has been used by some to allow discussion of contrast between self-directed and ‘taught’ education

Robert Gagné
(1916– 2002) was an American educational psychologist best known for his “Conditions of Learning”. Gagné pioneered the science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training. Later he went on to develop a series of studies and works that helped codify what is now considered to be ‘good instruction.’ He was also involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer-based training and multimedia-based learning
One of Gagné’s major contributions to the theory of instruction was the model “Nine Events of Instruction”.

Gain attention
Inform learner of objectives
Stimulate recall of prior learning
Present stimulus material
Provide learner guidance
Elicit performance
Provide feedback
Assess performance
Enhance retention transfer

Gagné’s work is sometimes summarized as the Gagné Assumption. The assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that different instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these different types of learning.

Theorists – Modern

Howard Gardner
Developed the Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Gardner believe that people have several intelligences, including:

Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)
Logical-mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)
Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)
Musical intelligence (“music smart”)
Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)
Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”)
Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”) – http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.php

He feels that not all of these intelligences are addressed and students who show strength in once intelligence should be encourage to pursue that intelligence. Gardner feels that schools and IQ test focus primarily on linguistic and logical smart, but do not encompass all of the types of intelligence.
http://tip.psychology.org/gardner.html

M. David Merrill
Merril created the Pebble-in-thePond Model.

David Jonassen
Constructivist theorist who had developed several ideas in relation to structural knowledge, Mindtools, and problem-solving techniques. Structural Knowledge focuses on students not knowing something, but knowing the why about that something. He supports that learners should not be only taught information, but given the opportunity to learn, in context, about how things work. He also uses Mindtools, or elements such as a computer, to be a tool to help facilitate learning and help set the context for more effective learning. Finally, Jonassen has written about problem-solving and how it is not addressed in many current educational environments.
http://www.elearningpost.com/articles/archives/exclusive_interview_with_professor_david_jonassen/

Screencast on Jonassen provided by Aaron Carpenter.
https://prezi.com/secure/a8546952b07380da691b9133a58a081fbde49183/

John Keller
Much of Keller’s work pertains to motivation design and he has developed the ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) Model, which is meant to support and sustain motivation in leaners. In order to motivate students the information but be attention grabbing or arousing, relevant and deemed worthy to the student, provide confidence for student, and must be rewarding.
http://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcs-model-of-motivational-design.html
http://www.arcsmodel.com/Mot%20dsgn%20A%20model.htm

Prezi on Keller created by Wes Parsell
http://prezi.com/zqoft1hu5a3d/john-keller-arcs-model/

Charles Raigeluth
Raigeluth developed the Elaboration Theory, which believes that information should be presented in increasing order of complexity. Learners should be shown the most basic information/task first and then progress from there to more complex ideas.
http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/reigeluth.html

Learning Theories

ADDIE – Instructional design model that provides framework for many other IDS models. ADDIE stands for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation.

Connectivism (George Siemens and Stephen Downes) – This theory focuses on the connections and systems of gathering knowledge. Regarding as a theory for a digital world, the emphasis is on connections of knowledge rather than the knowledge itself. It provides the idea that knowledge exists outside of the human brain and that constant facilitation of these connections are important for continual learning.

Digital-Game Based Learning (DGBL) (Marc Prensky) – This is the application of serious games into an educational environment. These games differ from other video games because they are designed specifically to produce pedagogical outcomes. DGBL is a method to create engagement in the classroom for learners who have grown up “digital”.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) (Ronald L. Mace) – An educational framework to provide personalized learning to encompass various types of learners. The goal of UDL is to provide learners with several ways to gain information, express knowledge, and provide them with the most effective learning style that suits their personal style.

Interactive Agents – Artificial intelligent agents which can interact with users, give feedback, and provide assistance when needed. These agents may be used to provide learners with a personal guide or assistant in a learning environment.

Learning Tools

Interactive Media

Podcasts – Audio or video files which can viewed in the Internet or with portable MP3 players. Users can subscribe to Podcasts and tags can be used to categorize them. Podcasts can be created using GarageBand, Audacity, or other audio programs.
Prezi – Free Web 2.0 tool which allows users to create interactive presentations. Easy to use and allows for simultaneous editing of users. Templates provided to create unique and stylish presentations.
Slideshare – Allows user to upload presentations such as Powepoint to create and online presentation. Slideshare also allows users to provide audio commentary and provides widgets that allow one to embed Slideshare presentations in blogs, wikis, or Websites. These Presentations can be share publicly or privately and events can be created for users to come view a presentation.
Screencast – Can be used to create presentations or video tutorials. Users have the ability to share publicly or privately and can determine who views their video.
Glogster – Website allows user to create free interactive posters. Easy to use with drap and drop interface and create interactive and stylish presentations.

Module Design

Websites
Wix – Choose from a variety of templates and create a unique Flash Website.
Webs – Over 300 free, editable templates to choose from for personal, business, and organizational use.
Yola – Create free Website from choice of templates. Provides users with personal sub-domain name and option to upgrade packages. Even has option for Paypal shopping cart.

Blogs
WordPress – Extremely popular blogging site which can also be used to create personal Websites. Lots of tools, templates, and code available for optimized personalization. Users can have total control over blog site, but some Web knowledge is needed.
Tumblr – Customizable blog which allows users to collect, organize, and share information. Allows e-mail, mobile, AIM, and Web publishing. Tumblr account can be linked to Facebook, Twitter, etc.
Blogger – Owned by Google,an easy to use blogging Website that requires no knowledge of HTML, but users are able to edit code if they wish. Also, a mobile editing application is available.
Posterous – Personal blog site which will allow blog posts to be sent to other linked social networking sites (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn). Also has ability to import blogs from other blog sites onto Posterous.

Wikis
PBWorks – Free wikis for business, educational, or personal use. Provides customizable templates, the ability to create public and private pages, and allows for embedding of multimedia projects.
Wikispaces – Off free and paid wikis for personal or business use. Users are given 2GB storage with unlimited pages and users. Wikis provide users with built-in discussion forums.

Professional Portfolio Development & Online Presence

Your Online Presence

Why Online Presence is Important
45 Good Reasons to Clean-Up your Online Identity
Website provides reasons why you should check our online presence and make an appropriate online identity for yourself.

Checking your Online Presence
•Google Yourself – ensure that no unwanted Websites or articles show up in search results that you would rather not have a potential employer see. Try Googling your name with and without quotations (eg. Paul vs. “Paul”). Also, Google screen names that you use which may also be searched by an employer.
•Check your personal pages (Facebook, Twitter, Myspace). Delete or un-tag yourself in any inappropriate images. Be aware of your comments and wall posts (of yourself and friends). Use privacy settings to prevent viewers from seeing certain content. Even create separate profiles to keep and professional and personal lives apart.
•Make sure that the information of you that can be found online is current and accurate. Update or remove any old profiles, work, or Websites that may no longer be of use to you.

Create a Strong Online Presence
http://www.chrisbrogan.com/19-presence-management-chores-you-could-do-every-day/
Website gives tips on how social networking can help you create and maintain a strong online presence.

Personal Branding
Developing your own Brand.
Personal Branding 101: How to Discover and Create Your Brand
http://mashable.com/2009/02/05/personal-branding-101/
This Website provides information of creating your own personal mark or brand and using that for you online presence with things such as a digital portfolio, LinkedIn, Twitter, or a blog.

Professional Portfolio.
What should it include?
http://www2.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=4148
Tips for educators when creating professional portfolios.

Remember – “You are only as strong as the weakest piece in your portfolio,” – Doug Martin http://www.edutopia.org/online-student-portfolios-collaboration-admissions

Theorists – Future

John Seely Brown

is a researcher who specializes in organizational studies with a particular bent towards the organizational implications of computer-supported activities.
His research interests include the management of radical innovation, digital culture, ubiquitous computing, autonomous computing and organizational learning. JSB is also the namesake of John Seely Brown Symposium on Technology and Society, held at the University of Michigan School of Information. The first JSB symposium in 2000 featured a lecture by Stanford Professor of Law Lawrence Lessig, titled “Architecting Innovation,” and a panel discussion, “The Implications of Open Source Software,” featuring Brown, Lessig and the William D. Hamilton Collegiate Professor of Complex Systems at SI, Michael D. Cohen. Subsequent events were held in 2002, 2006 and 2008.

Link to Aaron Carpenter & Wes Parsell’s VCT 5660 bio of JSB: http://5660jsb.bgsu.wikispaces.net/Introduction

Marc Prensky

is an American writer and speaker on learning and education. He is best known as the inventor and popularizer of the terms “digital native” and “digital immigrant” which he described in a 2001 article in “On the Horizon”. Prensky’s professional focus is on helping reform K-12 education, particularly by helping teachers change their pedagogy in ways that are more effective for 21st century students and by advocating for a change to a passion led, problem-solving-methodology-based curriculum. He is an advocate for the students in the educational process, and has initiated educator-student dialogs about the teaching process around the world. Prensky holds degrees from Oberlin College (1966), Yale University (1968) and the Harvard Business School (1980). He is the author of “Digital Game-Based Learning” (McGraw-Hill 2001), “Don’t Bother Me Mom – I’m Learning” (Paragon House 2006) and over 60 essays on learning and education.

Link to Matt Mieure and Rachel Donley’s VCT 5660 bio of Marc: http://cara2326.edu.glogster.com/marc-prenskey/

George Siemens

is a theorist on learning in a digitally-based society. He is the author of the article Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age and the book Knowing Knowledge – an exploration of the impact of the changed context and characteristics of knowledge.

Link to Frank Kohler and Bryan Austin’s VCT 5660 bio of George: http://animoto.com/play/sTeJQFGenuoBREgyggzeUg

Stephen Downes

is a designer and commentator in the fields of online learning and new media. Downes has explored and promoted the educational use of computer and online technologies since 1995.[1] In 2008, Downes and George Siemens designed and taught an online, open course reported as a “landmark in the small but growing push toward ‘open teaching.'”

Link to Stephen’s Web: http://www.downes.ca/

LRND Knowledge